Edna Pontellier Essay -- essays papers

Edna Pontellier Individuals shape the manner in which they live their lives around the general public they live in. It gives you dividers that you can either shape your existence with, or you can breakdown to make your very own form. The general public Edna originates from pushes her to defy her life, attempt to live her own specific manner inside the dividers and afterward at long last break liberated from the dividers, wich prompts the end of her character. Being conceived in a period that isn't directly for her, Edna attempts to push the things that her general public acknowledges. In her reality it is typical for a spouse to control the life of the life of his significant other. It isn't typical for a lady to leave her better half and keep a decent name. Caught by the principles set up for her, she realizes that there is no simple way out. As much as she provides for her general public she st...

Assessment and Evaluation

Evaluation is an intuitive procedure that gives educators, guardians or watchmen and the understudies themselves with legitimate data about advancement and accomplishment of expected educational plan instructing. It centers around instructing, learning and results. The primary objective of appraisal is to improve understudy learning in the subject under study.Advertising We will compose a custom exposition test on Assessment and Evaluation explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Assessments depend on accomplishment objectives and guidelines created for a specific educational plan grade. Appraisal is done to gather data on singular understudy execution inside a given time period. Learning confirmations may incorporate tests and portfolios. It might likewise include other learning errands, for example, diaries and composed work. The result data can be imparted to the understudies to make enhancements. Improvement of understudy learning can be through changing accomplishe d through changing the learning condition or the examination propensities. The subject of evaluation can be of any sort. It might be an occurrence or occasion, an individual, a spot or a condition. The topic is student focused, course based and in many occasions unknown and not reviewed. Appraisal tries to note down all information whether abstract or goal (Jere, 2010). On the hand, an assessment is a lot of exercises or articulations that look to decide if targets were figured it out. It centers to a great extent around grades and may mirror the segments of study hall other than authority level and course content. Assessment may incorporate conversation, participation, verbal capacity and collaboration among others. It is the last object of a request. Assessments tell whether a set objective or an answer has been met or not. It happens after culmination of a learning movement. Assessment is done at end of request. Assessment can bring about three things: A positive change, a negati ve change or no change or advancement by any means. Assessment investigates whether upgrades or changes have happened in the information. Appraisal and assessment need one another and bolster each other (Gavi, 2011). In outline, the three contrasts among appraisal and assessment will be; Assessment is developmental as in it is continuous and intended to improve learning while assessment is summative, that is, it is conclusive and it is intended to measure quality. Appraisal centers around how learning is going (process-arranged) while assessment centers around what has been realized (item situated). Appraisal distinguishes zones for development (it is analytic) while assessment shows up at a general evaluation, that is, it is critical (Patty, 2004). Formal evaluations have basic arrangements of desires from all understudies. These tests help educators to see how well understudies have comprehended subject abilities and ideas instructed in class. Subsequently instructors can foundati onally assess the understudies by utilization of genuine composition and understanding encounters. They accompany recommended models understanding. Information is registered and summed up numerically. There are rules for scoring and scores are regularly given by standard scores, percentiles or stanines.Advertising Looking for paper on training? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The educators have measurements that can bolster certain ends, for example, â€Å"a understudy is perusing underneath average† in light of the fact that these tests have had been attempted before on the understudies. Adaptability in appraisal results allows educators to intently screen the understudies so as to adjust evaluation as required. Along these lines these benchmarks help instructors and gatekeepers to assess understudy progress over the whole year (Gavi, 2011). Then again, casual evaluation shows strategies that are consolidated into l earning exercises or study hall schedules. Casual evaluations are likewise called execution based measures or rule referenced measures. They ought to be utilized in type of guidance. The sort of appraisal utilized ought to be in accordance with the end goal of evaluation. They can be utilized whenever without essentially meddling with instructional time. The outcomes got demonstrate the presentation of the understudy on that specific subject or ability of intrigue. Exercises related with casual evaluation incorporate exhibitions, oral introductions, singular activities and investigations among others. This kind of appraisal doesn't think about a more extensive gathering other than the understudies in that specific neighborhood venture. Dissimilar to formal evaluations that are information driven, casual appraisals are substance and execution driven (Patty, 2004). Social examinations are incorporated investigations that are intended to improve urban obligations of understudies. I hav e picked history subject as a social report in my casual appraisal beneath. The casual appraisal test is intended for understudies in basic evaluations. A fourth-year grade educator has recently completed three hours exercise showing a point on the state’s history. He plans to check the instructional viability and comprehension of this subject by utilizing a kind of conversation that appears as composed checks. The information got will thus help the instructor to plan and use information based directions during the following educating period. References Gavi, R. M. (2011). Dyslexia : Special Educational Needs Series. New York, NY: International Publishing Group. Jere, E. B. (2010). Powerful appraisal and Evaluation. Chicago: Tylor Francis.Advertising We will compose a custom paper test on Assessment and Evaluation explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Patty, S. A. (2004). Understanding Online learning: A guide for novices and theâ truly wary. New York, NY: J ohn Wiley Sons. This article on Assessment and Evaluation was composed and put together by client Maliyah Reed to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; be that as it may, you should refer to it in like manner. You can give your paper here.

Kajabi Review The Easy Way to Sell Your Knowledge Online

Kajabi Review The Easy Way to Sell Your Knowledge Online Make Money Online Queries? Struggling To Get Traffic To Your Blog? Sign Up On (HBB) Forum Now!Kajabi Review: The Easy Way to Sell Your Knowledge OnlineUpdated On 04/09/2019Author : Ram kumarTopic : BusinessShort URL : https://hbb.me/32pCtgp CONNECT WITH HBB ON SOCIAL MEDIA Follow @HellBoundBlogOnline learning continues to grow in popularity. People who might have once gone to night school or might have considered leaving their jobs in order to pursue knowledge and enrichment now have thousands of choices that fit their lives and schedules. It’s also easier than ever to level up on skills surgically, finding niche experts who offer their own accelerated learning experiences that focus on a specific process or area of proficiency.  With demand steadily climbing for these kinds of information products, it makes sense that more and more of us are also getting into the game by selling courses and subscriptions to paid membership websites.  If you’re interested in launching your own knowledge commerce business, whether it’s as a side project or as a key component to your revenue flow, then you’re going to need to build a great website dedicated to your knowledge products. This website needs to have the ability to attract an audience, get people interested, capture leads, collect payments and deliver dynamic course experiences. And all the better if the site can also work seamlessly with solutions for nurturing leads on autopilot.However, patching multiple tools together for your online course website can be tough on your sanity and wallet. Plus, there’s always the possibility of running into compatibility roadblocks when trying to integrate several platforms.Fortunately, there is a cost-effective way to build, market and sell online courses without having to worry about the tech side of things. In this article, we’ll take a closer look at Kajabi and discuss how you can use it to sell your knowledge online, whether it’s in the form of an online course, an e-book, or a membership site.Overview of KajabiKajabi is an all-in-one platform for building courses, marketing digital products, and memberships, and selling your knowledge. It packs several versatile features into one easy-to-use destination, including solutions to build and edit web pages, landing pages and courses; email marketing automation and contact management features; easy setup for collecting payments using Stripe or PayPal; and powerful business analytics, so you can prioritize your ongoing funnel optimization efforts.Basically, Kajabi takes care of the infrastructure side of selling courses so you can focus on creating the actual course content and delivering value to students.  It’s also great for creating a membership site or selling different types of digital products that are designed to share knowledge, such as e-books. You can also use it to create quizzes and surveys to enhance your students’ learning experience and host engaging marketing webinars.So yes , there’s a lot that goes into selling your knowledge online. Here, we’ll step through some of the key features on offer with Kajabi that make it easy for course instructors and membership site owners to start selling their courses, memberships, and digital products.Working With Kajabi’s Website BuilderThe first step you want to take towards selling your knowledge online is creating a website that lets you market and actually sell your products. Kajabi comes with a built-in knowledge commerce platform that you can use to sell all of your products from a single branded storefront.  Kajabi comes with several pre-built templates that make it easy to get things up and running so you can start selling right away. Right away, you can easily and quickly change the styles of different elements across all pages, including the text, colors, and images.One of the best things about Kajabi is that you can personalize your site’s design without any coding knowledge though, if you are tech -savvy, the platform lets you modify code to create a custom site design. You can choose whether you want to keep these changes specific to a single page or apply them across your entire website.Its built-in blogging platform is likewise super easy to set up and enables you to create new content and share updates with your students and community members. It’s also a great way to get the word out about your course or membership and generate leads.You can also add a login page to your online course website that lets students access all the content they’ve purchased from you. This way, they can rest assured that they have easy access to all of the course content at all times.Building out Your Products and CoursesKajabi comes with several tools out of the box to help you quickly build your course site and add your products to it. And if you have already developed a lot of content and information but aren’t sure how to best structure it all into a course with lessons, video lecture s, downloadable materials and interactive assessments, Kajabi’s Product Blueprints feature is a huge help.Once you’ve created the actual course content, adding it to your site is a cakewalk.  Using Blueprints, you can create four different types of products:Online courseMini courseEvergreen trainingMembershipIn addition to this, you also have the option to start with a blank template. Kajabi will guide you through the step-by-step process of building your online course. Once that’s done, all you have to do is configure pricing plans and link to a payment solution of your choice.In addition to building courses, it also lets you deliver an engaging, customizable learning experience to your students. Additionally, you can control the speed at which students receive your course material by dripping content based on a pre-defined schedule.With Kajabi, you’re able to upload video files to your course site, while the actual file hosting, delivery and encoding of your video content is handled behind the scenes by Wistia. This way, your students will be able to view your course videos whenever and wherever they want, with best-in-class video streaming. This is especially useful for online learners who are always on the go.  READ3 Basic Design Tips For Better Website Conversion RateYou can also further enrich your lessons by uploading multiple types of resources including images, documents, presentations, and audio files and allow students to download course content directly from your site.Kajabi lets you facilitate engaging in-course discussions with your students. It sends automatic notifications via email to students and members if someone replies to their comments, making it easy for them to rejoin the discussion.Managing Leads and Online LearnersKajabi makes it easy for course instructors and membership site owners to manage their contacts. For example, you can bulk import users to your platform simply by pasting in a list of names and email addresses.You c an also view a complete list of students who’ve purchased your content and easily see who has bought what, using the built-in filter tool. Similarly, the member dashboard lets you view specific details about each user, including their payment and login history. It also lets you create notes to record specific discussions you might have had with a student or member.Kajabi lets you easily see all user comments posted across your website from one place, which makes it easy to moderate them and reply to questions.It’s also worth mentioning that Kajabi enhances the student’s user experience in different ways. For example, it lets you create a multi-step checkout process that’s designed to eliminate friction and minimize cart abandonment rates.It also has a built-in lifecycle feature that allows you to better understand and track the customer’s journey. This lets you develop a better understanding of their first interaction with your website, where they’re currently at, and ho w they interact with your marketing messages.Kajabi’s tagging feature lets you segment contacts based on their behavior. You can also use it to bulk tag member groups for a specific action (for example, to drip specific course content to them) or to run a specific marketing campaign geared towards them.  Kajabi lets you tag users when you first import them into the platform, after they opt-in, or once they complete an email sequence, purchase an offer, attend an event, answer specific quiz questions or anything else. This makes it easy to work towards optimizing the lifetime value of your relationships.Unleashing Powerful Marketing AutomationYou’ll need to market your courses in order to get the word out, attract qualified leads, and sell courses and memberships. While other course platforms might offer lower monthly fees for sellers, Kajabi’s marketing functionalities are clear differentiators that pay for themselves.You can use Kajabi to create conversion-optimized landing p ages for capturing leads and delivering special offers. All you have to do is select a template, add your own messaging to it, and (optionally) customize its design.Kajabi’s Pipelines feature lets you create specific marketing funnels aimed at guiding different audience segments through a particular experience towards conversion. Here’s how it works.Let’s say you offer web design training for freelancers and have a large email list broken down into segments according to experience: college students who haven’t yet started freelancing, people who are just starting to freelance on the side and are considering scaling up, and seasoned freelancers who are hoping to improve their business efficiencies. You could create a pipeline that promotes your course with a series of videos that show the different ways your course helps college students to build amazing design portfolio websites.  People who engage with many assets along the way are sent additional content resources and even tually a special offer. Those who don’t click on your emails might receive a short re-engagement prompt, asking if they might prefer to unsubscribe and to share what their biggest challenges are. And you can build out similar pipelines for the other two segments, each pipeline having a different flow and different marketing messages.Upgraded Analytics for Business Strategy InsightsKajabi’s recently launched Professional Analytics feature lets you make the most of all of the data signals your website and other Kajabi-connected marketing assets receive and gives you useful insights about your business.  This information can help you make improvements to your site’s design, course content and marketing strategy.Here are some of the different types of reports you get with Kajabi:Its sales report lets you view exactly how many courses you’ve sold over a specific time period and your conversion rate.The opt-in report lets you see how many users opted in to your pipelines and calcu lates the opt-in percentage.Page view reports let you see how many people viewed your landing pages, monitor your site traffic, and how much time each user spent on each page.ConclusionKajabi is an all-in-one platform that gives you pretty much everything you need to build online courses, deliver enhanced learning experiences to students, and market and sell your products. In addition to this, it comes with a number of powerful features that make it easy for course instructors to manage students and see how their courses are performing.While other platforms like Thinkific or Podia might offer cheaper payment plans for course sellers, the marketing features that I’ve seen supported on these platforms are sparse. Kajabi’s Pipelines, Tags and brand new Professional Analytics modules make it the best value on the market from my perspective.

Case Study The Government and the Affordable Care Act of 2010 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1681 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Medicine Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Did you like this example? Case Study: The Government and the Affordable Care Act of 2010 Abstract The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 has certainly been a momentous subject for the United States history. This case study will describe the many significant processes of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010. It is essential for one to understand how this Healthcare Reform has changed the way Americans receive and practice healthcare. This case study will also introduce readers about how the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 was enacted and established through the United States government. Case Summary The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 was created by President Barack Obama. This was passed by Congress and signed into law on March 23, 2010. The Affordable Care Act of 2010 was implemented to help provide healthcare to uninsured Americans. According to Miller and Kirsch (2011), in 2012 it was estimated that more than 30 million Americans, under the age of 65 were uninsured or lacked health coverage (para.1). The American government has played an essential role to make this Act effective. The enactment and establishment of the health care law in 2010 has resulted in many significant debates, strategic maneuvers and partisanship, in the legislative branch of the US government. Effects of Key Stakeholders The key stakeholders in this case study are the members of the House of Representatives and Congress. President Barack Obama proposed a bill that lead to a split decision. While the bill was processed and enacted, members of the opposing side, the Republicans, did not agree so much. They were not too keen on the guidelines of the new law. They did not like the fact that the use of government funding and support, was necessary. The Republicans tried many times to repeal. No matter what the opposing side wanted, the President would just veto their requests (Klien, 2012). This affects the Republi cans, because they may feel the decisions made by the President were unfair. They may also feel as if, that they were not able to include contribute enough of their concerns and ideas in the new Act. Case Questions 1. The legislative branch of the United States government is known to be very complex system. The legislative branch is used to create and implement many bills and laws. According to John Cannan (2013), the legislative procedures is a straightforward process that has been utilized for decades (p.133). When a bill is introduced, it is released to the committee for consideration. After the bill is considered and reported by the committee, it is then released to the chamber floors (Cannan, 2013, p.132). The chamber floors consists of the full assembly of the house. The chamber floors will review the bill. When the bill is finalized and both chambers have agreed on it. The next step is voting, voting will then determine if the bill is ready be sent to the executive bran ch to be endorsed, and become into law (p.132). This legislative process is extremely important when the universal health care reform was presented. The new universal healthcare reform caused quite a stir in the White House. It was obvious, using the traditional legislative system to pass the new reform was not going to be a smooth ride. John Cannan (2013) explains that the current tradition system was time consuming and systematic. 2. Legislation has actually become more of an ad hoc (p.133). An ad hoc is defined as a concerned with a particular end or purpose, without further consideration of a wider application (Merriam-Webster, 2014). The ad hoc legislation of the Affordable Care Act was presented by President Barack Obama, during his first term in 2009. It was one of his top goal to implement during his election. As mentioned previously, President Obama wanted to strengthen existing forms of health care and expanding health coverage to be universal (Rosenbaum, 2011, p.130). Cannan (2010) explained that the ad hoc legislation involved two bills to come into law, the Patient Protection and the Affordable Care Act of 2010 and the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (pgs.133-34). It was not until March 2009, when the three chairman of the House committee had jurisdiction, over the health care reform. They were able avoid committee turf wars and work together to propose a draft legislation (Cannan, 2010, p.137). On June 19, 2009, Nancy Pelosi, the Speaker of the House, provided the discussion draft, which included many provisions and changes to the health care reform (Cannan, 2010, p. 137). Later, the Act was developed as the House bill 3200 Americas Affordable Health Choices Act of 2009 During this time, the congressional committees evaluated and altered any needed changes for the markup process. Cannan (2010) stated during the markup process committee members would discuss further on the action plans, make improvements, and then finally v oted on whether or not to send it out to the legislation (p.138). 3. The American public had many different reactions and concerns on the Act. According to Pew Research Center (2012), study showed that 48 percent of the public disapproved and 43 percent approved the Affordable Care Act of 2010 (para.2). This led to a clear partisan. A partisan was also essential to the process of the new health care reform act. The term partisan is defined as an action or spirit of partially for a specific political party (Farflex, 2014). Before the process of enacting this Act, there has been many protracted debates and discussions, between the Democratic and the Republican parties. Many Democrats were satisfied if the new law was upheld, and the Republicans wanted it to be eliminated (Pew Research, 2012). Throughout the American history, the Republican and Democratic parties rarely agreed the same ideas and beliefs on certain topics. According to Pew Research (2012), both the Democrats and Repu blicans were not in favor with one of the components of the health care reform (para.4). They did not like the idea of the individual mandate. The individual mandate is a law part of the Affordable Care Act, requiring all individuals to have healthcare. If they failed to obtain a healthcare coverage, or choose not to have one, they will end up having to pay a penalty tax. The Republicans said this law was unconstitutional (Klein, 2012). Another example of partisanship with this Act, was the governments extensive role in the health care. The Republicans were not fond of expanding the role of government in healthcare, and felt that was not a substantial method (Weissert Weissert, 2012, p.19). Research stated, 88 percent of Republicans felt the government involvement in health care was too demanding, while only 37 percent of Democrats felt that way (Pew Research, 2012). Miller and Kirsch (2011) noted many newly elected governments campaigned against this, due to the estimated $235 bil lion budget deficit (p.3). 4. The political strategic maneuvers that influenced the new health care reform of 2010, was to find the best solution to implement affordable health care for Americans. Miller and Kirsch (2011) stated there has been many road bumps and difficult challenges. One of the noticeable challenges was the time frame for the Affordable Care Act to fully function successfully. Many of the revised and new coverage provisions will not fully be effective until four years (p.2). In order to provide and educate people on how to acquire health insurance, the most efficient method is to divide it upon each state. Since the Affordable Care Act is built as a joint federal state initiative, the health care reform was to be administered primary by the states (Miller kirsch, 2011, p.3). Many responsibilities of each state consisted of implementing insurance Exchanges for small business owners and their employees, educating individual about the new healthcare reform, and ma naging the Medicaid expansion (Miller Kirsch, 2011, p.3). As a result, each state will have to plan accordingly based on their policy choices, financial resources, and staffing. According to Sara Rosenbaum (2011), as of August 5, 2010, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners acknowledge that about half of the states confirmed their health insurance department held implemented powers through explicit legislation or through their general powers (p.131). At that time, under the federal law, state implemented federal insurance regulations remained voluntary. In another study it showed that for the past 25 years, Republicans support for federal aid in health care has declined (Pew Research, 2012). According to Joanne Kenan (2011) on January 19, 2011, all Republicans and three Democrats in the United States House of Representative voted to repeal the health care reform (para.1). Since a full repeal of the Act was not granted it resulted in an ongoing battle, within the legisl ation. The opposing parties wanted to make additional changes to the Act. They requested changes to the individual and employer mandate, prohibition on states to reduce Medicaid eligibility, and the CLASS act, to name a few (Kenan, 2011). Conclusion In the end, the process and enactment of the Patient Protection and the Affordable Care Act of 2010 has made it mark in the United States history. The process to enact this Act was also very different compared to other previous signed laws. President Barack Obamas top agenda to promote universal healthcare coverage for all Americans has proved to be a large and difficult task. The governments involvement and control on health care has led to numerous adverse views on the Act. Still, with many members of the House and unsatisfied Americans, requesting to make additional changes to the Act, will result in a unforgettable turnout during the next few years. References Ad hoc. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.merriam-webster.com /dictionary/ad hoc Cannan, J. (2013). Legislative history of the affordable care act: How legislative procedure shapes legislative history.Law library journal,105(2), Kenen, J. (2011, February 25).Health policy briefs. Retrieved from https://www.healthaffairs.org/healthpolicybriefs/brief.php?brief_id=41 Klein, E. (2012, June 25).Unpopular mandate. Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2012/06/25/120625fa_fact_klein Miller, M. Kirsch, R. (2011, January). Where the rubber meets the road: Strategies for successful state implementation of the affordable care act.The California Endowment, Obama health care law: Where does the public stand?. (2012, June 15). Retrieved from https://www.people-press.org/2012/06/15/obama-health-care-law-where-does-the-public- stand/ Partisanism. (2014). Retrieved from https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Partisan (political) Rosenbaum, S. (2011). Law and the publicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s health.Public Health Reports,126, Weisse rt, W., Weissert, C. (2012).Governing health: The politics of health policy. (4th ed.). Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Case Study: The Government and the Affordable Care Act of 2010" essay for you Create order

Professional Athletes Are Faced With Stressors On A...

Junior athletes are faced with stressors on a regular basis and athlete burnout has become more popular amongst the junior athlete population. Common factors to this athlete burnout included different types of motivation, parental stress, and perfectionistic tendencies. The research study presented in Jowett, Hill, Hall, and Curran’s Perfectionism and Junior Athlete Burnout: The Mediating Role of Autonomous and Controlled Motivation focuses on the role of perfectionism in athlete burnout and how both internal and external pressures can hinder an athlete’s desire to compete. According to Jowett et. al., the study relied on â€Å"self-report measures† (57) in order to find the relationship between perfectionism, autonomous and controlled motivation, and burnout in junior athletes (56). At the conclusion of the study, the prediction of a positive correlation between â€Å"perfectionistic concerns† (56) and athlete burnout. It was additionally found that altho ugh autonomous motivation had a positive correlation with burnout, controlled motivation did not affect burnout rates. Athlete burnout is currently a very prevalent and respected topic in sports psychology. Many athletes have a strong passion for the sports they are involved in for a number of years, yet many of them decide to longer pursue their sport due to burnout. It has been a strange phenomenon because there are a variety of factors that can push an athlete to lose the passion that fuels their athletic dreams. This study triesShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesof Management 113 Major Elements of Stress 113 Reactions to Stress 114 Coping with Stress 115 Managing Stress 117 Stressors 117 Eliminating Stressors 120 Eliminating Time Stressors Through Time Management 121 Eliminating Encounter Stressors Through Collaboration and Emotional Intelligence 128 Eliminating Situational Stressors Through Work Redesign 130 Eliminating Anticipatory Stre ssors Through Prioritizing, Goal Setting, and Small Wins 132 Developing Resiliency 134 Physiological Resiliency 136 PsychologicalRead MoreOverview of Hrm93778 Words   |  376 Pagesforce efficiently/effectively this will be beneficial for all stakeholders (Organization, Employees and Society). D r . M u k h ta r A h m e d Challenges/Issues of Managing Human Resources in present era Following are the main issues that are faced by the mangers to manage the workforce of today’s organization for achievement of objectives. a. To Attract People People will be interested to join any organization if it is providing them quality working environment, attractive benefit and opportunitiesRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 Pages1994 64 Relevant Executive Orders 64 vii WORKPLACE ISSUES: HRM Certification 44 Is a Career in HRM for Me? 45 ETHICAL ISSUES IN HRM: Purposely Distorting Information 46 Does HRM Really Matter? 46 HR Trends and Opportunities 47 Outsourcing 47 Professional Employer Organization (PEO) 47 Shared Services 47 HRM in an Entrepreneurial Enterprise 48 HRM in a Global Environment 48 HR and Corporate Ethics Summary 50 Demonstrating Comprehension: Questions for Review 51 Key Terms 51 52 HRM Workshop 49 Read MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pages610 Case Incident 2 The Rise of Extreme Jobs 610 Appendix A Research in Organizational Behavior 616 623 Comprehensive Cases Indexes Glindex 637 663 About the Authors Stephen P. Robbins Education Ph.D. University of Arizona Professional Experience Academic Positions: Professor, San Diego State University, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, University of Baltimore, Concordia University in Montreal, and University of Nebraska at Omaha. Research: Research interests have

Business Btec Level 3 Unit 38 - 1469 Words

Economic Environment The economy of each country has features that could be measured in different ways to see how they are changing. The economic environment of countries has an effect on countries due to the trading between countries affecting the money coming in and out of the country which then affects the cost of goods and prices. The economic environment would affect jaguar land rover as the goods and prices will have been affected. By this happening it would result in the prices of the cars costing more due to the resources used costing more for the manufacturer. Business Cycle Increases and falls in the production are shown through the business cycle as well as income and the expenditure of the country over a period of time.†¦show more content†¦Deflation is when the prices of products and services decreases for a period of time. This could show that an economy is in a recession. As the prices are decreasing it can cause problems as a business would have to decrease their costs in order for them to survive. Jaguar land rover may have to make redundant some of their employees when inflation is rising as people may not buy their products and this will help them save money. Jaguar land rover would have to reduce its costs when in inflation as the prices of their products start to decrease. They could also cut their costs by making people redundant which would mean they will be giving out fewer wage. Employment rates During boom employment levels will be high and during recession unemployment levels will also be high. When the employment levels are high employers may find it difficult to find suitable people because there may not be many people that are suitable for the job not finding work. When unemployment levels are high sales may fall because of many people not being able to afford to buy products from businesses. In some countries with a lot of technology there may be more machines doing the same work that was previously done by people. If jaguar land rover expand their business in different countries it will mean they will need more people to do the work which will mean unemployment levels will stay low. But if jaguar land rover gets robots (as they have in their Liverpool company) to do the sameShow MoreRelatedhnt travel tourism3075 Words   |  13 PagesBTEC National Level 3 Travel and Tourism 2010 13 Unit 13: Tour Operations Unit 13 Tour Operations Unit 13 Overview 10 Credits Tour operators play a very important role in travel and tourism, by arranging the package holidays that are such an important feature of life in the 21st century. 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Understand different food and beverage production and service systems†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.3 2. 1.1Characteristics of food production†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 3. 1.2 Factors affectingRead Morehealth and social care Essay2985 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿ ADVANCED WELSH BACCALAUREATE INDIVIDUAL INVESTIGATION A Comparative Investigation into Teenage Pregnancy in Wales and England BTEC Level 3 Diploma Public Services CONTENTS PAGE No. Section Page 1. Planning 2. Introduction 3. Methodology 4. Investigation Findings Analysis Wales Ireland 5. Conclusion 6. Evaluation 7. Bibliography 8. Appendix PLANNING MY INDIVIDUAL INVESTIGATION Title for

The Different Between the Formats of Financial Statements free essay sample

The different between the formats of financial statements (income statement and balance sheet) for different types of business such as sole proprietorship, partnership and limited company Each company will have different economic sectors so they use different financial statements with different format that satisfy those sectors. The financial statements collect the financial records form the sales and purchases produce, the net taxable profit or loss for each month.Different types of business use different formats. For sole traders, the financial statement for sole traders is simple; because the report is just serve for the owner of the company. So, it is not complex, it may not have the balance sheet and income statement. The report just needs to show the profit and loss account compared to a public limited liability company which will have to prepare based on international financial reporting standard (IFRS) and generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP).If financial statements are not prepared based on standards it is difficult to compare with other organisations. We will write a custom essay sample on The Different Between the Formats of Financial Statements or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For partnership, the financial statement has relation to the interests and the profit of the ones contributes the capital of the company. The target of the financial statement is shown the balance sheet, profit, income, outcome and the loss statement. When making financial statements, the income statement would usually be prepared first because the net income or loss becomes a part of the statement of partners’ capital.The statement of partners’ capital is prepared second because the ending partners’ capital balances become part of the balance sheet. The statement just focused on analyzing the capital and profits of the company that are is circulated inside the company. For limited company, the financial statement must reflect the current, non-current assets, liabilities, sales, profits, cost of income tax payable and earning per share.

Hamilton An American Musical free essay sample

â€Å"How does a bastard, orphan, son of a wh**e† become a smashing Broadway success? By combining brilliant, historically accurate lyrics with rap, six-part harmonies, and strong hip-hop influences. â€Å"Hamilton: An American Musical,† written by Lin-Manuel Miranda and starring Miranda as Alexander Hamilton, has taken Broadway by storm. While I have yet to see â€Å"Hamilton† on stage, this Grammy-winning album is superb both by music industry and Broadway standards. Listening to the album, you feel like you are sitting in a theater watching the hit show being performed. The rapping is understandable and brilliant, the harmonies are tight, and the entire album radiates that magical Broadway energy. â€Å"Hamilton† takes you on a musical historical journey. Alexander befriends Aaron Burr (Leslie Odom Jr.), who gives him advice: â€Å"Talk less, smile more/Don’t let them know what you’re against or for.† Issues facing the newly established United States are discussed through Cabinet rap battles. We will write a custom essay sample on Hamilton: An American Musical or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Commentary in â€Å"Burn† and â€Å"The Room Where It Happens† surmise what actually happened over 200 years ago and discuss the end results in a beautiful storytelling manner. â€Å"Hamilton† allows you to reimagine history as though the Founding Fathers had rapped their ideologies and emotions. Since I haven’t seen the show but simply heard the wonderful music telling the story, let’s talk about the lyrics. The lyrics are tightly worded poetic masterpieces containing historical gold nuggets. They don’t just recite historical facts; they mine all the emotions that can be found in Hamilton’s story. It feels like you are standing right alongside him as he works his way from a poor orphan to a principled leader trying to establish economic sovereignty for our country. But perhaps the best part of the lyrics isn’t just what is said, but all the underlying themes Miranda masterfully crams into this more than two-hour-long story. From the idealized American dream to the poor underdog shaping history through hard work, Miranda paints this Founding Father as a relatable role model. It’s a powerful and moving story about a little known Founding Father whose economic policy established strong roots that have helped generations of Americans to prosper. Miranda also comments on our inability to control what legacy we leave. Alexander asks, â€Å"Legacy. What is legacy? It’s planting seeds in a garden you never get to see.† And Aaron Burr sings, â€Å"History obliterates in every picture that it paints, it paints me and all my mistakes.† As Hamilton and Burr discover, â€Å"You have no control who lives, who dies, who tells your story.† But I believe Lin-Manuel Miranda’s rendition of Alexander Hamilton’s story portrays these individuals as honestly as possible.

The Social Consequences Of Divorce In Canada Social Work Essays

The Social Consequences Of Divorce In Canada Social Work Essays The Social Consequences Of Divorce In Canada Social Work Essay The Social Consequences Of Divorce In Canada Social Work Essay Divorce or disintegration of matrimony refers to the concluding expiration of a lawful matrimony through the cancellation of the legal duties and responsibilities of matrimony and besides disintegration of the bonds of marriage between married people. Chiefly, divorce requires a canonic legal procedure either through a justice or other related governments. In most of the European states a divorce is non perceived to be a declaration that a matrimony is void and null or as an revocation but as a cancellation of the matrimonial position of the concerned people or twosome. In states where monogamousness is a jurisprudence, the divorced spouses have the authorization to hold or get married another individual but in the states where polygamy is permitted the divorced adult female has the right to acquire married by another. This research paper is traveling to discourse on how divorce has affected the life opportunities and chances of the Canadian kids and young persons who have had the di vorce experience. The factors to be discussed include the offense or delinquency, limited educational attainment ( school dropout ) jobs associating to socialisation, or other societal jobs ( substance maltreatment ) . Parental divorce causes delinquency or offense behaviour in the affected kids. As we all know that many kids get their behaviours largely from friends or parents. Again kids have a natural attractive force to their parents since birth. Divorce means that a kid may non acquire a corporate parental attention from their parents because they ( parents ) may be excessively busy to pay attending to their kids. Most divorced parents tend to be drowned into the divorce instances of depressions thereby go forthing their kids to make what they want and to be in the company of whoever they please. Lack of parental counsel can motivate kids to deviate from the required societal behaviours hence prosecuting in some juvenile Acts of the Apostless such as maltreatment, hooliganism and larceny in the adjacent places. There are assorted divorce factors that contributes to offense and delinquency besides deficiency of parental counsel, attention and love. One of the factors is the economic conditions which are ever associated with a individual household and which places the kids at greater hazards. This is because kids who do happen their parental fiscal aid unsatisfying may make up ones mind to fend for their ain therefore acquiring involved to the offense state of affairss. It is believable to state that along with the deficiency of stuff ownerships it can do the young person to skid down the slippery incline into the life of delinquency. The other factor is socialisation. This is because the kids shacking with individual parents may non be willing to mix with others and even the parent. This is unlike the kids who are populating with their both parents. Again, some of the parents may be delinquents and their kids will copy from them therefore going delinquents excessively. Another factor is bad vicinities. This is propelled by the fact that many individual parents are non really affluent or even financially stable and they hence end up shacking in low cost ghetto countries wh ereby their kids may be forced by fortunes to be involved in delinquency and offense Acts of the Apostless. The other factor is the ways in which the functionaries and systems from some of the formal establishments such as the constabulary, tribunals and schools respond to the kids from the individual parents households. This is because they tend to comprehend them negatively therefore placing them as delinquents and some so may make up ones mind to be what they are being associated with. The delinquency behaviours in kids from divorced households may be caused by the violent and aggressive behaviours experienced by the kids if the divorce procedure or their parental matrimony was marred by violent and aggressive behaviours ( Kulla, 2006 ) . There is one country which is chiefly affected by divorce and it is evidently the kid s instruction. These effects are chiefly characterized by a kid s bead in public presentation and the kid may besides get down moving out in category. Children exposed to divorce are besides likely to reiterate class at least twice and besides have the likeliness of acquiring expelled or expelled from school at least five times. These two features signify that the kid is holding troubles in get bying with the dislocation of a parent s matrimony. Harmonizing to the survey which was carried out by two Canadian universities ( Alberta and Manitoba ) , the effects of parental divorce could lend to greater school bead out prevalence amid the kids whose parents are acquiring divorced as compared to those whose parents live together. The research depicted that the effects of divorce were much far worse for the childs who went through two or more parental alterations as a consequence of decease, remarriage, divorce and even another divorce. It was estimated that these childs have merely 40-50 % possibility of successfully finishing high school instruction as compared to their opposite numbers from the stable households. Harmonizing to the university research workers 78.4 % of kids who did non undergo parental divorce or rupture completed their instruction in front of their equals who experience a alteration in the household family. The research besides showed that there was no important difference between the childs who experienced the loss of one parent and the 1s experienced one divorce ( Enotalone.com, 2009 ) . The consequences besides indicated that in these two groups around 60 % received high school sheepskin although merely a few kids who experienced more than two divorced families received high school sheepskin. Lack of academic public presentation and deficiency of schooling brings down the kids s ability to go future professional whereby some may stop up going stealers and ev en manual labourers. Another ground as to why kids from divorced households do no run into their academic ends is the economic strain of the divorcing parents and particularly the tutelary female parent who frequently face post divorce effects. Custodial female parents normally face dramatic economic losingss following divorce that lead to the feelings of emphasis which adversely affect rearing. The divorce is chiefly riotous to the kids because the tutelary parent normally faces a important sum of emphasis in the clip period instantly after the divorce. Economic loss of the tutelary parent affects the instruction of the kids because the kids may alter school may be from good to hapless schools which are associated with poorness and hapless classs. A school that has low criterions of instruction normally produces hapless pupils. Some tutelary parent may even miss adequate money to take their kids to schools and this may be really destructive to the future employment chances of the kid for what office wor k can any one bash without academic documents. Again a kid shacking with the tutelary parents my dislike the sort of new school they have now been moved or transferred to and they therefore can make up ones mind to drop out of school therefore going one of the illiterate people in the society. It should be noted that kids who are sing parental divorce are more likely to drop out of school particularly when there is no communicating between the school and place so that there can be a good coordination if the kid is traveling to be assisted in get bying with the dislocation of the parent s matrimony. Children from the divorced households may besides neglect to make up to their academic ends because some of the kids maintain laughing or even looking down at them. This brings approximately reduced concentration whereby the kid ends up executing ill academically ( Theparentreport.com, 2010 ) . Divorce dramatically affects the socialisation of the several kids. It is tantamount to the hurting of decease of a parent. Divorce ever creates a great loss, unhappiness, confusion and heartache for the kids. For case they hate themselves and the people around them because they believe that they are the cause of the divorce and that their parents do non love them any longer. These kids besides have jobs in school and other societal countries for some have a really low regard to a point that they do non desire to be associated with other kids. Again, they think that are worthless and bad. Some kids tend to dislike association with their parents since they feel that they have let them down and others wish that they were born in stable households. Divorce can impact the kid and the effects may travel up to her maturity impacting countries such as employment relationships or even future matrimony. For case in Canada, teenage and young person females who experience divorce are associated with low regard, promiscuous behaviours such as harlotry, greater delinquent behaviours and normally have troubles in keeping the long- term relationships. They besides experience the great loss of their male parents both personally and emotionally for they feel that they ( male parents ) abandoned them because they are non fond plenty, reasonably adequate and smart plenty. Many kids from the divorced have socialisation jobs because they may miss adequate installations and resources which they used to hold. They may therefore stop up losing their long clip friends therefore missing adequate company to socialise with. There are some societal jobs which are associated with divorce. These include drug maltreatment due to the stressing experiences the kids go through as a consequence of parental divorce. Again, many end up taking drugs because they find them to be better sympathizer to their jobs compared to the people populating around them. Young females may besides prosecute in harlotry where the tutelary parent is incapable of supplying the basic demands. Other male childs and misss will prosecute in some of the activities like delinquency and offense for illustration larceny and hooliganism so that they can make full the shortage of the demands and things that their tutelary parent is unable to supply and which they were used to hold when their household was stable. Some kids may besides copy the violent and aggressive behaviours and utilize them in hassling some of their friends during some of the societal activities for illustration in school, churches and even at cantonments. Divorce can besi des take to decease through self-destruction particularly where the kids fail to get by with the station divorce results. Conclusively, I feel that kids from divorced households may on mean experience more major behavioural and psychological jobs than those kids in the integral households. The troubles that the young person and the kids experience as a consequence of the parental divorce are chiefly contributed by the loss of contact with the parents, emphasis, economic troubles, parental accommodation, interparental struggle and competency. Many divorces hamper the ability of the kids to to the full realize their ends in life due to economic jobs which bar them from progressing their faculty members to the needed criterions. Parental divorce can besides take to offenses and delinquency particularly where the kids do non hold the basic demands which they used to hold. Divorce can besides convey societal jobs such as drug maltreatment, disaffection and harlotry. Parents should guarantee that appropriate steps are taken so that kids are assisted with the station divorce results so that they may non stop u p being lifetime failures.

Important assignment -527 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Important assignment -527 - Research Paper Example The capital city has a cold climate but is made colder by the nearness to Mount Kenya (Hornsby, 2012). The various inhabitants in Kenya are the Bantu, which takes the greatest percentage, followed by Notes. These put together, comprise of 97%. The coastal region is inhabited by European, who began exploring those areas and Arabs since the early times. Settlements began divisions when Kenya was colonized by the British Empire in 1985 and at around 1920, a clear way was prepared for their settlement. The Kenyan republic attained its independence in 1963, where it got the freedom to rule itself. It placed Nairobi to be its capital city that deals with commercial services with a great specialty in Agriculture. Kenya grows coffee and tea. The Swahili word came from the Bantus and was taken to be the mother language of the Swahili people in the coastal area. It became an official and national language for the country. Some vocabularies of Swahili got meaning from the Arabs time of the invasion in the coast, when they mingled with the Arabs who spoke Muslim and is a composition of some German, English, French and Portuguese (Steers, SaÃŒ nchez-Runde, & Nardon, 2010). The language was first spoken in the coast along Tanzanian border, before been made formal after independence by the then president of African Great Lakes region. The word then spread via fishermen in different coastal islands. Swahili began spreading along other regions from traders who dealt with cloves. During the trade time, they preferred the style as they maneuvered to other areas and in turn made people adopt. The word spread easily within the islands because the traders had established extensive contact with the people coming in and out of the coastal area. These made it a bit famous by the sixth century to Dar-es-salaam in Tanzania and most Kenyan regions. Currently, the biggest part of Kenya’s population is now in a position to speak Swahili. These are evidence where most

Analyse the change process during the takeover of Cadbury by Kraft and Essay

Analyse the change process during the takeover of Cadbury by Kraft and critically evaluate the management of that change process - Essay Example When Kraft took over Cadbury, this was a major change that was disruptive to the Cadbury organisation, which had implications for the all the stakeholders involved. Included in the stakeholders was the UK government, which rebuked the organisation for shuttering a plant that it promised to keep open. The workers felt job insecurity. However, the change was not all bad, as both companies gained market share throughout the world. This essay will examine the changes that were made, including the mistakes that Kraft made, and how the change affected all the stakeholders involved. Cadbury Nature of Change The triggers for change The triggers and forces promoting the change was that Kraft, in September of 2009, offered a takeover for Cadbury, valuing it at the time at ?10.2 billion (Wearden, 2010). This offer was initially rejected. Kraft eventually went hostile without a change in terms, despite the fact that Cadbury upped its sales and profit margins, along with a warning that the firm, Cadbury, would lose its unique culture if Kraft took it over. In the end, despite Cadbury's resistance to the takeover, Cadbury's board recommended that the firm be sold to Kraft for ?12 billion (Wearden, 2010). The triggers for change, in this case, was that Kraft wanted to expand its brand, and Cadbury was struggling in the marketplace. In applying the models of change, one of the pertinent models is that of Lewin’s Force Field Model. In this model, an organisation is beset by driving forces on one side and resisting forces on the other. Change upsets the equilibrium of the company, and the driving forces for change are opportunities and threats (Lewin, 1951). The driving force in this case was Kraft’s will to obtain the company, by any means, because it wanted to expand its market share. The resisting forces came when Cadbury repeatedly rejected Kraft’s offers, and, finally, Kraft had to take the company in a hostile takeover (Wearden, 2010). The opportunity that was represented by change was that both companies could gain market share. The threats was that Kraft’s takeover would threaten jobs, and would make workers, and the UK government, feel insecure about the future of the Cadbury company. Another model that is applicable is Lewin’s Ice Cube model. This assumes that there must be a transition state, that is the unfreezing of people’s beliefs – beliefs are frozen, and they must unfreeze for there to be change. The present state is the frozen belief system, while the desired state is what occurs after the beliefs are unfrozen, change takes place, and there is a new desired state that takes the place of the old belief system (Lewin, 1951). This is applicable in the Kraft case, as people in the Cadbury firm had a certain corporate culture and belief system, which is explained below, and they had to learn to adopt a new culture which was imposed by Kraft.

Theories of Leadership in Schools

Theories of Leadership in Schools CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Schools organizations are involved into reform, change, and improvement efforts and process stemming from a desire for renewal, gaps in performance results, advancements in knowledge, mandates, and other societal deficits where responsibility has been delegated to schools (Evans, 1996). According to Fullan (2000) and Mai (2004) the problem for school organizations seeking to effectively improve or change centers on what behaviors, strategies, or structures contribute positively to organizational learning and renewal in a way the produces the capacity for sustainability in order to make a positive difference for students. Foster (2001) discussed that while the majority of past theories on school leadership have focused upon the capabilities of one individual, this accepted belief of a solitary leader is now being challenged as traditional models of leadership and organizational change are being analyzed. Thus, instead of viewing leadership as a role for one person, leadership is now being redefined as a practice shared among many individuals (Harris, 2003). Distributed leadership involved with creating joint responsibility for leadership activities. Interesting is the focus on shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Shared leadership is used as synonym for democratic leadership, and collaborative leadership. Practitioners use it to create effective school leadership, or improving schools, or to study leadership. Building leadership capacity means broad-based, skillful involvement in the work of leadership. There is a need of significant number of skillful teacher leaders who understood the shared vision in the school, and are able to carry it out. Also the work involves reflection, inquiry, conversations and focused action professional behaviors that are an integral part of daily work. Understandings and skillfulness involve more than the knowledge of an innovation. The skillfulness focused is those skills of leadership that allow other teachers to capture the imagination of their colleagues, enable them to negotiate real changes in schools and negotiate any conflicts that arise in organization (Harris and Lamber, 2003). In order to build leadership capacity for school improvement the U.K. Open University suggested the following main characteristics: Surface, clarity and define values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions and experiences ; inquire into practice; construct meaning and knowledge ; frame action and develop implementation plans. The Cyprus Educational System is open to a wide range of influences, which create the need for change and improvement. The strategy of the Ministry of Education in Cyprus is to proceed with the Educational Reform Program in order to fully achieve the goal of an all inclusive, democratic and human school, which embraces all students equally and provides education to each and every pupil according to his/her needs. Educational Reform was launched in January 2005, following a report by a Committee of seven academics which identified the weaknesses of Cyprus Educational System and the areas in need of reform. UNESCOs Report at the end of 90s come to the summarized conclusion that â€Å"The administrative system of governing and monitoring of the Ministry of Education and Culture remains strictly centralized, bureaucratic and inflexible.† The main goal is to restructuring of Ministry of Education and Culture by modernize the organizational structure for all the departments. School Reform, Change and Improvement A lot of efforts about improving education have become national and international in scope, beginning in 1983 in USA with â€Å"A Nation at Risk† and recently â€Å"No Child Left Behind† federal legislation, (2001). Elmore (2002) explains that is not enough to focus solely on these new reform standards requirements. Continuing school improvement for all students achievement will need to develop and sustain a school climate where everyone is committed to learning and everyone is accountable for pupil achievement. Sheppard (2003) proposed that school leadership is critical for improving pupil achievement. Leithwood and Riehl (2003) according to their research findings concluded that leadership has a significant effect on student learning, curriculum and teacher instruction. Some researchers like Hallinger and Heck(1998) suggest that school survival today is depending of the effective leadership that can guide schools through the challenges of improving student achievement . Fullan (2001), Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) support that effective leadership at all levels of the educational system is critical. Also organizations cannot flourish on the actions of the top leaders alone. They suggested that schools need many leaders at many levels. Neuman and Simmons (2000) discussed that leadership is the job of the whole educational community, and learning becomes the focus and primary value for every member. Whilst the quality of teaching strongly influences levels of pupil motivation and achievement, it has been consistently argued that the quality of leadership matters in defining the motivation of teachers and the quality of teaching in the classroom (Fullan, 2001; Sergiovanni, 2001) Recent studies of effective leadership have described that authority to lead can be dispersed within the school in between and among people (MacBeath, 1998; Day, Harris and Hadfield, 200; Harris, 2002). Leadership is actually separated from person, role and status and is primarily concerned with the relationships and the connections among individuals within a school. Distributed, shared or teacher leadership is well developed and grounded in research evidence. Distributed Leadership implies a redistribution of power and re-alignment of authority within the school. Main goal is the creation of the conditions in which people work together and learn together. By giving authority to teachers and empowering them to lead leadership is emergent rather than as a fixed phenomenon. Literature review about Leadership consists of a number of leadership theories, styles and approaches. The most of these theories on school leadership have focused on individual capabilities. Recently this believes are challenged because of organizational changes and reform in our educational system. Leadership is now being re-defined as a practice distributed among many individuals (Harris, 2003). I believe that today the concept of distributed leadership is receiving much attention and growing empirical support (Spillane, 2006). The focus is oriented not upon the characteristics of the leader but upon creating the climate for shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Spillane and Diamond (2007) discussed that distributed leadership is used as a synonym for democratic leadership, shared leadership, and collaborative leadership. In many cases distributed leadership is used to create effective school leadership, others use it for improving schools, and some for leadership research. In order to contribute to the necessary transformation of our schools, school improvement demands learning that is encourages lifelong personal and social experience. The teacher needs to feel that not only can she/he believe in school improvement, but that she/he is making her/him own contribution, and is involved in the improvement process. Improvement is something no-one would want to avoid, like good food. We argue that school improvement must be related to the re-examination of the purposes of schools in the future. The globalization of economic activity has transcended national boundaries and has created unprecedented social relations mediated through global economic practices. School improvement strategies need to move away from organizational issues and take more account of the voices of those most involved the young people themselves as well as their teachers. Today in many countries like USA schools and states emphasize on school reform and improvement by consider those factors that influence the implementation and sustainability of improvement efforts (Sergiovanni, 2006; Hall and Hord, 2006). According to the writers school improvement initiatives demand resources like additional personnel, time, money, staff development, instruments and space. For example Sergiovanni (2006) suggested that schools must institutionalize the allotment of resources to provide for the longevity of the school improvement initiative. Another main resource element necessary for school system is the school culture. School culture influences the degree to which an improvement initiative is successfully implemented (Jazzar Algozzine, 2006). Leadership Practices of Effective Head Fullan (2003) examined that principals are often the key to school improvement efforts and also he identified barriers to improvement often noted by school heads. It is important when school improvement and reform initiative is implemented from the state level, building managers must be able to encourage and motivate their staff to successfully implement the initiative. (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstron, 2004). School head is a key element for school improvement efforts regardless of system imposed barriers such as not clearly identifying the heads responsibilities and lack of leadership training provided for school principals. Most important step for improvement implementation in schools is the creations of supporting culture environment for change. Heads need to establish such cultures in the following situations: In developing of policies and procedures which facilitate the improvement process. By establishment of patterns so that individuals can work together as they strive for improvement. By focusing on collaborative relationships with numbers of staff and other administrators. By teacher development and learning activities focused on the improvement initiative. By assessment of the procedures in order to evaluate and monitor improvement sequences of actions. By discussing any success according the improvement implementation. By motivate staff members for their success as they engage in improvement. The literature on effective leadership emphasize on those essential characteristics for leading school improvement. Especially Kouzes and Posner (2002a) have conducted research on the practices and skill of effective leaders by identified five practices and ten corresponding commitments that all leaders demonstrate. Kouzes and Posner (2000) practices are presented by Balcerek (1999, p.4) in a table of leadership model. Ten Commitments of Leadership Practices Commitments Model the Way 1 Find your voice by clarifying your personal values 2 Set the example by aligning actions with shared values Inspire a Shared Vision 3 Envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities 4 Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations Challenge the Process 5 Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow, and improve. 6 Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes. Enable Others to Act 7 Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust. 8 Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion Encourage the Heart 9 Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence. 10 Celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community Leadership Capacity in School Organization Today teachers need initiatives to develop, learn, practice, evaluate, and debate in order to successfully change practice necessitating supporting leadership for change (Hargreaves and Fink, 2004). Change leaders focus on the development of teachers knowledge, skill and learning within a professional community and worked on changing the content in order to create new settings conducive to learning and share (Fullan, 2000b). In a school organization, the formal role of the leader was typically the head, but successful leaders in the leadership of change realized that sustainability of improvement was found in collective learning and the development of leadership capacity within colleagues of the school (Lambert, 2005a). Sergiovanni (2005) emphasize on head responsibility on serving as a leader of change by building and cultivating the leadership capacity of others in school. It is important for successful heads to focus on building leadership capacity in a number of good leaders within the school organization who could sustain improvement. By establishing the conditions for developing the skills, knowledge, and abilities of others during the change process, the leader enriched the schools efforts for renewal and advanced the improvement process (Mai, 2004). Effective school heads during change envisioned an expanded view of leadership in order to sustain meaningful long lasting changes. The school change process support that leadership was not viewed as the individual role, but rather as an organizational concept that leads to school improvement. Leadership is found within the culture of a school organization that promoted the advancement of the capabilities of many members to lead. Lambert, (2003) described that leadership accepted collective responsibility for school improvement and leadership capacity was realized when a school staff is participate in dialogue, and reflection to achieve student performance goals. Leadership capacity support schools in moving beyond the implementation phase of change towards sustainable improvement. Teachers leadership and effective leaders plan for sustainable leadership focus on culture of initiative and opportunity within the school (Hargreaves and Fink, 2003). Leadership capacity provides others with opportunities, resources, training, and support structures for collective learning with accountability. Leadership capacity is about learning communities promoting leadership for all participants share and understood the contributions made by each member toward the school purpose (Lambert, 2005b). Theories of Leadership Leadership historically has been defined in different ways by various writers on leadership. Authors who write about leaders emphasize on personal skills and characteristics of individual in specific roles within the organization. Some others authors focus on leadership by determining functions, which performed by person in the organization. Leithwood et al (1999) and Yukl (2002) agreed that some definitions about leadership are more useful than others, but there is no complete definition. Harris (2002) and Leithwood (2001) discussed distributed leadership as an alternative to traditional leadership models. According to Owava and Bosset (1997) leadership flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations and is based on the deployment of resources that are distributed across the network of roles, with different roles having access to different levels and types of resources. Most of the theories included their meaning in key words like â€Å"followers†, â€Å"authority†, and â€Å"decision making†. Measures of personality have been shown to correlate with ratings of leadership effectiveness. Leadership exists within a single person and a situation. Leaders are also involved in managing the culture by establishing strategic direction, communicating that direction and defining the organizational vision and values. The National College for School Leadership (NCSL, U.K) in 2003 identified eight models of leadership: Instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, post-modern, interpersonal, and contingency leadership (Bush and Glover, 2003). Successful leadership is when the influence brings about the behavior and results that were intended by the leader. Effective leadership is when successful leadership results in functional behavior and the achievement of group goals. Knowledge, personal qualities or charisma of the leader and the manner in which authority is exercised are variables for leadership. Elements that made leaders successful in the twentieth century may not be the same elements needed in the future. Leadership needs to be continually studied and investigated in order to be more effective and successful. Yukl (2006) described that leadership effectiveness is differ among researchers based upon the researchers definition of leadership. Self-Evident Theoretical Approach The â€Å"Great Man Approach† is the first theory of leadership, also called â€Å"Self-Evident Theory†. Glasman and Glasman (1997) identified this theory, which assumed that leaders are born and not made and that instinct is more important than training. The criteria for selecting leadership characteristics in this model are still confusing and unclear. Trait Theory Stogdill (1948) conducted a meta-analysis of 124 empirical studies between 1904 and 1947. By using correlation statistics, he compared specified traits of successful leaders with those of unsuccessful leaders to define if those traits were prerequisites for effective leadership. He concluded that leadership could not be explained simply in terms of an individual or group; rather, it must take into account the interaction of the leaders traits with situational variables. The review failed to find evidence a person must possess a particular set of traits to become a successful leader, which is the basic assertion of the trait approach. Yukl (2006) cited further research supporting Stogdills findings by claiming the reason for the lack of evidence linking traits to leadership success was due to poor research methods. Trait theory was based on the assumption that individuals possessed certain physical characteristics, personality traits, and intellectual abilities that made them natural leaders. Behavior Theory This theoretical approach analyzes leadership behaviors and how they correlate between them. The emphasis was shifted from investigating what effective leaders are, to investigating what effective leaders do (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004; Yukl, 2006). By the 1950s behaviorist theory assumed that leadership behaviors exercised in one situation did not necessarily transfer to other situations. Yukl discussed that behavior research has concentrated on two categories: 1) examination of leadership activities and duties and 2) examination of effective leadership behaviors. Since 1939 three Universities were involved in research of f leadership behavior. At the University of Iowa researchers identified three styles of leadership: democratic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire connecting with leaders decision-making. Those three leadership styles are still common place in the literature and discussion among practitioners in the field of educational leadership (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Also at the University of Ohio Fleishan (1953) developed questionnaire to measure how often a leader used these behaviors sorting by categories. A questionnaire composed of 150 items was completed by samples of civilian and military individuals to describe the behavior of their leaders. The study identified two dimensions of leadership: 1) consideration and 2) the ability to initiate structure (Mouton and Blake, 1984; Stogdill and Coons, 1957). Consideration was defined as the level to which a leader exhibits expressions of trust, respect, warmth, support, and concern for the welfare of subordinates (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004, p.150). Initiating structures was defined as the level to which a leader concentrates on organizational performance goals, organizes / defines tasks, establishes channels of communication, develops relationships with subordinates, and evaluates work performance (Razik and Swanson, 1995, p.42). The two categories were independent of one another. No correlation was found between a leaders uses of one type of categorical behavior with that same leaders utilization of the other type of categorical behavior. The University of Michigan (Likert, 1967) attempted to identify the correlation between a leaders behavior, group process, and group performance. Leadership studies concluded that effective leaders are both task- and relationship-oriented (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) have a different opinion with previews writers because they have not considered the effects of situational factors like differences in tasks completed, of the group, and differences in the environment. These issues are connected to the actions that must be performed by the leader and consequently on the appropriate leadership behavior to be used in the given situation. According to the Ohio and Michigan studies the initiating structure is similar to task-oriented behaviors, and consideration is similar to relation-oriented behaviors. Important role of teachers, counselors, and other school staff exercising leadership roles are distinctly different from the traditional leadership role of the head. The questionnaires from Ohio State University are modified and have been used by different researchers in many survey studies. According to that research evidence the results were not satisfied for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Fisher and Edwards, 1998; Yukl, 2006). The findings were inconsistent for the relationship between consideration and subordinate performance. Research revealed subordinates are more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate. Especially between 50s and 80s a huge amount of studies about effective leadership behaviors are concluded with effective leadership connecting with school goals and concern for relationships. Situational Theory Yukl (2006) argued that situational approach covers the social characteristics of the organizations and how they influence the type of leadership exhibited. Main important for this theory is that distinguishing characteristics of the organizational members are more important to leadership than personal traits (Glasman and Glasman, 1997; Lipham, 1973; Wildavsky, 1985). Yukl explained that there are many variables like the nature of the work performed, the type of the organization, and the features of the organizations peripheral elements. Studies for situational approach have been divided into two subcategories. According to the first subcategory leadership processes are compared in various types of managerial positions, organizations, and cultures. The second type of research emphasizes on leadership effectiveness by specific various aspects of the situation that have a bearing on the leaders attributes. Those approaches concerning aspects of leadership applying to some situations, but not others, are called contingency theories. Contingency Theory Contingency approaches specify the situational elements that describe the relationship among leaders traits, behaviors, and performance criteria. Contingency approaches include four sets of concepts: traits of leaders, characteristics of the situation, behaviors of the leader, and effectiveness of the leader. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) described that contingency theory it depends on the interaction of the leaders personal traits, behavior, and factors in the leadership situation. Fielder (1967) argued that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to match their style of leadership. During his study discovered important interactions, between leadership styles and situational variables. Fielder suggested that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to suit their style of leadership. Four contingency approaches of leadership are reviewed: The LPC Contingency Theory, Path-Goal Contingency Theory, Situational Leadership Contingency Theory, and Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory. LPC Contingency Theory: Fiedler (1967) generalized the LPC contingency theory to analyze leadership through examination of the situation, the organizational members, and its tasks. The LPC contingency theory describes how the situation affects the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure defined the least preferred coworker (LPC) score. LPC score is defined by asking a leader to select one past or present coworker with whom the leader could work least well, and rate this person on a scale of varying adjectives such as friendly or unfriendly and efficient or inefficient. The total of the ratings on these bipolar adjectives scales is the leaders PLC score. The score identifying if the leader behavior are more relationship or task motivated. Path-Goal Theory: House (1971) emphasized on the leaders ability to motivate subordinates to reach goals, the rewards associated with reaching goals, and the importance of the goal. House proposed that leaders need to examine the situational variables and then apply one of the four leadership styles (supporting, participative, directive, or achievement oriented), the one that was more close to the situation. Bolman and Deal (1991) and Golman et al., 2002 discover that effective leaders have a repertoire of styles and the leaders effectiveness is based on his/her ability to frame the situation so that he/she can use the style most suitable for the task in the context. House (1996) reconstructed this theory by modernizing the conceptions of subordinate motivation and abilities, and task characteristics as situational elements, and expanded the outcomes to include subordinate satisfaction and work unit effectiveness, but not leader traits. To be effective, leaders engage in behaviors that add to the subordinates environment in order to increase subordinates satisfaction and work effectiveness. House and Mitchell (1974) described another leadership behavior, participative leadership. Participative leadership seeks advice from organizational members and considers their opinions and suggestions in the decision making process. Yukl (2006) described that participative leadership involves various decision making processes allowing other members of staff, besides the leader, some influence over the decision. Participative leadership used to encourage democratic principles or to enhance effectiveness of the organization. Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested another reason for generalizing participative leadership in schools, the site-based management (SBM) approaches. Access to SBM for decision making is given to any legitimate stakeholder in the school based on their expert knowledge, their democratic right to choose, and their critical role in implementing decisions. Murphy and Beck (1995) suggested SBM metamorphosis takes one of three forms; administrative-controlled SBM, professional-controlled SBM, and community-controlled SBM. Main important goal for administrative-controlled SBM is to pass authority to the local school administrators to make decisions on the budget, personnel, and curriculum for the best use of resources for the students benefit. Teacher-controlled SBM is generalized to make improvement in determining how money will be spent, selection of the curriculum, and choosing personnel. Educators participation in the decision making process will give them ownership in the decisions during implementation and leads to improved effectiveness (Clune and White, 1998; David, 1989). Community controlled SBM are concerning with the accountability of parents and the community. Parents and other community members have a majority of the input when deciding upon the curriculum so it will reflect their values. Leithwood and Duke (1999) stated an equal participation SBM does exist in the form of side councils that have decision-making power. Everyone works together to make the best school decisions possible. Situational Leadership Contingency Theory: According to Hershey and Blanchard (1977) the level of the workers maturity determines the task and relationship behavior for the leader. A worker of high maturity has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a worker of low maturity lacks ability and self-confidence. At the other side Barrow (1977) believed maturity is a combination of many elements and the procedure used to weight and combine them was questionable. Yukl (2006) underlined Hershey and Blanchards theory made positive highlights of leaders to be adaptive and flexible in their behavior. Situational leadership theory emphasizes on leaders to be conscious of opportunities to increase the skills and confidence of workers. Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory: The theory according to Kerr and Jermier (1978) makes a distinction between substitutes and neutralizers, which are two different kinds of situational variables. Substitutes include all the characteristics of the worker like task, or organization ensuring the worker will clearly realize their roles, know how to do the work, be highly motivated, and have work satisfaction. Examples of substitutes would be the exceptional ability of a worker, an intrinsically satisfying task, and a cohesive work group within the organization. Usually when workers have prior experience, they already have acquired t he skills and knowledge to accomplish their tasks. If workers are motivated by their work because is according to their interests, the leader may not need to motivate them. Neutralizers are any characteristics of the organization that block a leader from acting in a specific way or that cancel the results of the leaders actions. Example is the lack of interest of workers toward rewards. In many situations there so many neutralizers that it is difficult for a leader to succeed. There are two ways to make the situation more favorable for the leader either remove the neutralizers or make the leadership less important by increasing substitutes. According to Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Ahearne, and Bommer (1995) there is a low level of relationship between the leader and other members motivation of the organization affected by situation variables. Researches concerning substitute leadership theory based on some aspects of the theory, but other aspects have not been supported (Howel Dorfman, 1986; Pitner, 1986; Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, Williams, 1993; Yukl, 2006). Yukl (2006) discussed that the main contribution of substitutes theory is to offer a different perspective on leadership by focus on leadership processes in groups and organizations. Main limitation of contingency theories is the lack of consideration of leadership processes that transform the way followers view themselves and their work. School Effectiveness Research School effectiveness and the related area of school improvement have been topics for an increasing body of academic research since the 1960s. School effectiveness research had its origins in the mid-1960s and early 1970s when a prevalent view in the research community, especially with regard to equality of opportunity, was that schools had little influence on childrens achievement that was independent of background and social context. In the late 1970s in the United States, Edmonds and, in the United Kingdom, Rutter responded by embarking on what was to emerge as the first phase of school effectiveness research. The two studies run independently by Edmonds and Rutter set out to investigate whether schools in their national contexts showed any effects when account was taken of the differences in their student populations. Their findings, arrived at independently, were similar: schools do make a small but highly significant difference to the life chances of their students. School effec tiveness research studies undertaken during the 1980s focused on improving the methodology and replicating the resea Theories of Leadership in Schools Theories of Leadership in Schools CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Schools organizations are involved into reform, change, and improvement efforts and process stemming from a desire for renewal, gaps in performance results, advancements in knowledge, mandates, and other societal deficits where responsibility has been delegated to schools (Evans, 1996). According to Fullan (2000) and Mai (2004) the problem for school organizations seeking to effectively improve or change centers on what behaviors, strategies, or structures contribute positively to organizational learning and renewal in a way the produces the capacity for sustainability in order to make a positive difference for students. Foster (2001) discussed that while the majority of past theories on school leadership have focused upon the capabilities of one individual, this accepted belief of a solitary leader is now being challenged as traditional models of leadership and organizational change are being analyzed. Thus, instead of viewing leadership as a role for one person, leadership is now being redefined as a practice shared among many individuals (Harris, 2003). Distributed leadership involved with creating joint responsibility for leadership activities. Interesting is the focus on shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Shared leadership is used as synonym for democratic leadership, and collaborative leadership. Practitioners use it to create effective school leadership, or improving schools, or to study leadership. Building leadership capacity means broad-based, skillful involvement in the work of leadership. There is a need of significant number of skillful teacher leaders who understood the shared vision in the school, and are able to carry it out. Also the work involves reflection, inquiry, conversations and focused action professional behaviors that are an integral part of daily work. Understandings and skillfulness involve more than the knowledge of an innovation. The skillfulness focused is those skills of leadership that allow other teachers to capture the imagination of their colleagues, enable them to negotiate real changes in schools and negotiate any conflicts that arise in organization (Harris and Lamber, 2003). In order to build leadership capacity for school improvement the U.K. Open University suggested the following main characteristics: Surface, clarity and define values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions and experiences ; inquire into practice; construct meaning and knowledge ; frame action and develop implementation plans. The Cyprus Educational System is open to a wide range of influences, which create the need for change and improvement. The strategy of the Ministry of Education in Cyprus is to proceed with the Educational Reform Program in order to fully achieve the goal of an all inclusive, democratic and human school, which embraces all students equally and provides education to each and every pupil according to his/her needs. Educational Reform was launched in January 2005, following a report by a Committee of seven academics which identified the weaknesses of Cyprus Educational System and the areas in need of reform. UNESCOs Report at the end of 90s come to the summarized conclusion that â€Å"The administrative system of governing and monitoring of the Ministry of Education and Culture remains strictly centralized, bureaucratic and inflexible.† The main goal is to restructuring of Ministry of Education and Culture by modernize the organizational structure for all the departments. School Reform, Change and Improvement A lot of efforts about improving education have become national and international in scope, beginning in 1983 in USA with â€Å"A Nation at Risk† and recently â€Å"No Child Left Behind† federal legislation, (2001). Elmore (2002) explains that is not enough to focus solely on these new reform standards requirements. Continuing school improvement for all students achievement will need to develop and sustain a school climate where everyone is committed to learning and everyone is accountable for pupil achievement. Sheppard (2003) proposed that school leadership is critical for improving pupil achievement. Leithwood and Riehl (2003) according to their research findings concluded that leadership has a significant effect on student learning, curriculum and teacher instruction. Some researchers like Hallinger and Heck(1998) suggest that school survival today is depending of the effective leadership that can guide schools through the challenges of improving student achievement . Fullan (2001), Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) support that effective leadership at all levels of the educational system is critical. Also organizations cannot flourish on the actions of the top leaders alone. They suggested that schools need many leaders at many levels. Neuman and Simmons (2000) discussed that leadership is the job of the whole educational community, and learning becomes the focus and primary value for every member. Whilst the quality of teaching strongly influences levels of pupil motivation and achievement, it has been consistently argued that the quality of leadership matters in defining the motivation of teachers and the quality of teaching in the classroom (Fullan, 2001; Sergiovanni, 2001) Recent studies of effective leadership have described that authority to lead can be dispersed within the school in between and among people (MacBeath, 1998; Day, Harris and Hadfield, 200; Harris, 2002). Leadership is actually separated from person, role and status and is primarily concerned with the relationships and the connections among individuals within a school. Distributed, shared or teacher leadership is well developed and grounded in research evidence. Distributed Leadership implies a redistribution of power and re-alignment of authority within the school. Main goal is the creation of the conditions in which people work together and learn together. By giving authority to teachers and empowering them to lead leadership is emergent rather than as a fixed phenomenon. Literature review about Leadership consists of a number of leadership theories, styles and approaches. The most of these theories on school leadership have focused on individual capabilities. Recently this believes are challenged because of organizational changes and reform in our educational system. Leadership is now being re-defined as a practice distributed among many individuals (Harris, 2003). I believe that today the concept of distributed leadership is receiving much attention and growing empirical support (Spillane, 2006). The focus is oriented not upon the characteristics of the leader but upon creating the climate for shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Spillane and Diamond (2007) discussed that distributed leadership is used as a synonym for democratic leadership, shared leadership, and collaborative leadership. In many cases distributed leadership is used to create effective school leadership, others use it for improving schools, and some for leadership research. In order to contribute to the necessary transformation of our schools, school improvement demands learning that is encourages lifelong personal and social experience. The teacher needs to feel that not only can she/he believe in school improvement, but that she/he is making her/him own contribution, and is involved in the improvement process. Improvement is something no-one would want to avoid, like good food. We argue that school improvement must be related to the re-examination of the purposes of schools in the future. The globalization of economic activity has transcended national boundaries and has created unprecedented social relations mediated through global economic practices. School improvement strategies need to move away from organizational issues and take more account of the voices of those most involved the young people themselves as well as their teachers. Today in many countries like USA schools and states emphasize on school reform and improvement by consider those factors that influence the implementation and sustainability of improvement efforts (Sergiovanni, 2006; Hall and Hord, 2006). According to the writers school improvement initiatives demand resources like additional personnel, time, money, staff development, instruments and space. For example Sergiovanni (2006) suggested that schools must institutionalize the allotment of resources to provide for the longevity of the school improvement initiative. Another main resource element necessary for school system is the school culture. School culture influences the degree to which an improvement initiative is successfully implemented (Jazzar Algozzine, 2006). Leadership Practices of Effective Head Fullan (2003) examined that principals are often the key to school improvement efforts and also he identified barriers to improvement often noted by school heads. It is important when school improvement and reform initiative is implemented from the state level, building managers must be able to encourage and motivate their staff to successfully implement the initiative. (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstron, 2004). School head is a key element for school improvement efforts regardless of system imposed barriers such as not clearly identifying the heads responsibilities and lack of leadership training provided for school principals. Most important step for improvement implementation in schools is the creations of supporting culture environment for change. Heads need to establish such cultures in the following situations: In developing of policies and procedures which facilitate the improvement process. By establishment of patterns so that individuals can work together as they strive for improvement. By focusing on collaborative relationships with numbers of staff and other administrators. By teacher development and learning activities focused on the improvement initiative. By assessment of the procedures in order to evaluate and monitor improvement sequences of actions. By discussing any success according the improvement implementation. By motivate staff members for their success as they engage in improvement. The literature on effective leadership emphasize on those essential characteristics for leading school improvement. Especially Kouzes and Posner (2002a) have conducted research on the practices and skill of effective leaders by identified five practices and ten corresponding commitments that all leaders demonstrate. Kouzes and Posner (2000) practices are presented by Balcerek (1999, p.4) in a table of leadership model. Ten Commitments of Leadership Practices Commitments Model the Way 1 Find your voice by clarifying your personal values 2 Set the example by aligning actions with shared values Inspire a Shared Vision 3 Envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities 4 Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations Challenge the Process 5 Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow, and improve. 6 Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes. Enable Others to Act 7 Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust. 8 Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion Encourage the Heart 9 Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence. 10 Celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community Leadership Capacity in School Organization Today teachers need initiatives to develop, learn, practice, evaluate, and debate in order to successfully change practice necessitating supporting leadership for change (Hargreaves and Fink, 2004). Change leaders focus on the development of teachers knowledge, skill and learning within a professional community and worked on changing the content in order to create new settings conducive to learning and share (Fullan, 2000b). In a school organization, the formal role of the leader was typically the head, but successful leaders in the leadership of change realized that sustainability of improvement was found in collective learning and the development of leadership capacity within colleagues of the school (Lambert, 2005a). Sergiovanni (2005) emphasize on head responsibility on serving as a leader of change by building and cultivating the leadership capacity of others in school. It is important for successful heads to focus on building leadership capacity in a number of good leaders within the school organization who could sustain improvement. By establishing the conditions for developing the skills, knowledge, and abilities of others during the change process, the leader enriched the schools efforts for renewal and advanced the improvement process (Mai, 2004). Effective school heads during change envisioned an expanded view of leadership in order to sustain meaningful long lasting changes. The school change process support that leadership was not viewed as the individual role, but rather as an organizational concept that leads to school improvement. Leadership is found within the culture of a school organization that promoted the advancement of the capabilities of many members to lead. Lambert, (2003) described that leadership accepted collective responsibility for school improvement and leadership capacity was realized when a school staff is participate in dialogue, and reflection to achieve student performance goals. Leadership capacity support schools in moving beyond the implementation phase of change towards sustainable improvement. Teachers leadership and effective leaders plan for sustainable leadership focus on culture of initiative and opportunity within the school (Hargreaves and Fink, 2003). Leadership capacity provides others with opportunities, resources, training, and support structures for collective learning with accountability. Leadership capacity is about learning communities promoting leadership for all participants share and understood the contributions made by each member toward the school purpose (Lambert, 2005b). Theories of Leadership Leadership historically has been defined in different ways by various writers on leadership. Authors who write about leaders emphasize on personal skills and characteristics of individual in specific roles within the organization. Some others authors focus on leadership by determining functions, which performed by person in the organization. Leithwood et al (1999) and Yukl (2002) agreed that some definitions about leadership are more useful than others, but there is no complete definition. Harris (2002) and Leithwood (2001) discussed distributed leadership as an alternative to traditional leadership models. According to Owava and Bosset (1997) leadership flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations and is based on the deployment of resources that are distributed across the network of roles, with different roles having access to different levels and types of resources. Most of the theories included their meaning in key words like â€Å"followers†, â€Å"authority†, and â€Å"decision making†. Measures of personality have been shown to correlate with ratings of leadership effectiveness. Leadership exists within a single person and a situation. Leaders are also involved in managing the culture by establishing strategic direction, communicating that direction and defining the organizational vision and values. The National College for School Leadership (NCSL, U.K) in 2003 identified eight models of leadership: Instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, post-modern, interpersonal, and contingency leadership (Bush and Glover, 2003). Successful leadership is when the influence brings about the behavior and results that were intended by the leader. Effective leadership is when successful leadership results in functional behavior and the achievement of group goals. Knowledge, personal qualities or charisma of the leader and the manner in which authority is exercised are variables for leadership. Elements that made leaders successful in the twentieth century may not be the same elements needed in the future. Leadership needs to be continually studied and investigated in order to be more effective and successful. Yukl (2006) described that leadership effectiveness is differ among researchers based upon the researchers definition of leadership. Self-Evident Theoretical Approach The â€Å"Great Man Approach† is the first theory of leadership, also called â€Å"Self-Evident Theory†. Glasman and Glasman (1997) identified this theory, which assumed that leaders are born and not made and that instinct is more important than training. The criteria for selecting leadership characteristics in this model are still confusing and unclear. Trait Theory Stogdill (1948) conducted a meta-analysis of 124 empirical studies between 1904 and 1947. By using correlation statistics, he compared specified traits of successful leaders with those of unsuccessful leaders to define if those traits were prerequisites for effective leadership. He concluded that leadership could not be explained simply in terms of an individual or group; rather, it must take into account the interaction of the leaders traits with situational variables. The review failed to find evidence a person must possess a particular set of traits to become a successful leader, which is the basic assertion of the trait approach. Yukl (2006) cited further research supporting Stogdills findings by claiming the reason for the lack of evidence linking traits to leadership success was due to poor research methods. Trait theory was based on the assumption that individuals possessed certain physical characteristics, personality traits, and intellectual abilities that made them natural leaders. Behavior Theory This theoretical approach analyzes leadership behaviors and how they correlate between them. The emphasis was shifted from investigating what effective leaders are, to investigating what effective leaders do (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004; Yukl, 2006). By the 1950s behaviorist theory assumed that leadership behaviors exercised in one situation did not necessarily transfer to other situations. Yukl discussed that behavior research has concentrated on two categories: 1) examination of leadership activities and duties and 2) examination of effective leadership behaviors. Since 1939 three Universities were involved in research of f leadership behavior. At the University of Iowa researchers identified three styles of leadership: democratic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire connecting with leaders decision-making. Those three leadership styles are still common place in the literature and discussion among practitioners in the field of educational leadership (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Also at the University of Ohio Fleishan (1953) developed questionnaire to measure how often a leader used these behaviors sorting by categories. A questionnaire composed of 150 items was completed by samples of civilian and military individuals to describe the behavior of their leaders. The study identified two dimensions of leadership: 1) consideration and 2) the ability to initiate structure (Mouton and Blake, 1984; Stogdill and Coons, 1957). Consideration was defined as the level to which a leader exhibits expressions of trust, respect, warmth, support, and concern for the welfare of subordinates (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004, p.150). Initiating structures was defined as the level to which a leader concentrates on organizational performance goals, organizes / defines tasks, establishes channels of communication, develops relationships with subordinates, and evaluates work performance (Razik and Swanson, 1995, p.42). The two categories were independent of one another. No correlation was found between a leaders uses of one type of categorical behavior with that same leaders utilization of the other type of categorical behavior. The University of Michigan (Likert, 1967) attempted to identify the correlation between a leaders behavior, group process, and group performance. Leadership studies concluded that effective leaders are both task- and relationship-oriented (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) have a different opinion with previews writers because they have not considered the effects of situational factors like differences in tasks completed, of the group, and differences in the environment. These issues are connected to the actions that must be performed by the leader and consequently on the appropriate leadership behavior to be used in the given situation. According to the Ohio and Michigan studies the initiating structure is similar to task-oriented behaviors, and consideration is similar to relation-oriented behaviors. Important role of teachers, counselors, and other school staff exercising leadership roles are distinctly different from the traditional leadership role of the head. The questionnaires from Ohio State University are modified and have been used by different researchers in many survey studies. According to that research evidence the results were not satisfied for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Fisher and Edwards, 1998; Yukl, 2006). The findings were inconsistent for the relationship between consideration and subordinate performance. Research revealed subordinates are more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate. Especially between 50s and 80s a huge amount of studies about effective leadership behaviors are concluded with effective leadership connecting with school goals and concern for relationships. Situational Theory Yukl (2006) argued that situational approach covers the social characteristics of the organizations and how they influence the type of leadership exhibited. Main important for this theory is that distinguishing characteristics of the organizational members are more important to leadership than personal traits (Glasman and Glasman, 1997; Lipham, 1973; Wildavsky, 1985). Yukl explained that there are many variables like the nature of the work performed, the type of the organization, and the features of the organizations peripheral elements. Studies for situational approach have been divided into two subcategories. According to the first subcategory leadership processes are compared in various types of managerial positions, organizations, and cultures. The second type of research emphasizes on leadership effectiveness by specific various aspects of the situation that have a bearing on the leaders attributes. Those approaches concerning aspects of leadership applying to some situations, but not others, are called contingency theories. Contingency Theory Contingency approaches specify the situational elements that describe the relationship among leaders traits, behaviors, and performance criteria. Contingency approaches include four sets of concepts: traits of leaders, characteristics of the situation, behaviors of the leader, and effectiveness of the leader. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) described that contingency theory it depends on the interaction of the leaders personal traits, behavior, and factors in the leadership situation. Fielder (1967) argued that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to match their style of leadership. During his study discovered important interactions, between leadership styles and situational variables. Fielder suggested that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to suit their style of leadership. Four contingency approaches of leadership are reviewed: The LPC Contingency Theory, Path-Goal Contingency Theory, Situational Leadership Contingency Theory, and Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory. LPC Contingency Theory: Fiedler (1967) generalized the LPC contingency theory to analyze leadership through examination of the situation, the organizational members, and its tasks. The LPC contingency theory describes how the situation affects the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure defined the least preferred coworker (LPC) score. LPC score is defined by asking a leader to select one past or present coworker with whom the leader could work least well, and rate this person on a scale of varying adjectives such as friendly or unfriendly and efficient or inefficient. The total of the ratings on these bipolar adjectives scales is the leaders PLC score. The score identifying if the leader behavior are more relationship or task motivated. Path-Goal Theory: House (1971) emphasized on the leaders ability to motivate subordinates to reach goals, the rewards associated with reaching goals, and the importance of the goal. House proposed that leaders need to examine the situational variables and then apply one of the four leadership styles (supporting, participative, directive, or achievement oriented), the one that was more close to the situation. Bolman and Deal (1991) and Golman et al., 2002 discover that effective leaders have a repertoire of styles and the leaders effectiveness is based on his/her ability to frame the situation so that he/she can use the style most suitable for the task in the context. House (1996) reconstructed this theory by modernizing the conceptions of subordinate motivation and abilities, and task characteristics as situational elements, and expanded the outcomes to include subordinate satisfaction and work unit effectiveness, but not leader traits. To be effective, leaders engage in behaviors that add to the subordinates environment in order to increase subordinates satisfaction and work effectiveness. House and Mitchell (1974) described another leadership behavior, participative leadership. Participative leadership seeks advice from organizational members and considers their opinions and suggestions in the decision making process. Yukl (2006) described that participative leadership involves various decision making processes allowing other members of staff, besides the leader, some influence over the decision. Participative leadership used to encourage democratic principles or to enhance effectiveness of the organization. Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested another reason for generalizing participative leadership in schools, the site-based management (SBM) approaches. Access to SBM for decision making is given to any legitimate stakeholder in the school based on their expert knowledge, their democratic right to choose, and their critical role in implementing decisions. Murphy and Beck (1995) suggested SBM metamorphosis takes one of three forms; administrative-controlled SBM, professional-controlled SBM, and community-controlled SBM. Main important goal for administrative-controlled SBM is to pass authority to the local school administrators to make decisions on the budget, personnel, and curriculum for the best use of resources for the students benefit. Teacher-controlled SBM is generalized to make improvement in determining how money will be spent, selection of the curriculum, and choosing personnel. Educators participation in the decision making process will give them ownership in the decisions during implementation and leads to improved effectiveness (Clune and White, 1998; David, 1989). Community controlled SBM are concerning with the accountability of parents and the community. Parents and other community members have a majority of the input when deciding upon the curriculum so it will reflect their values. Leithwood and Duke (1999) stated an equal participation SBM does exist in the form of side councils that have decision-making power. Everyone works together to make the best school decisions possible. Situational Leadership Contingency Theory: According to Hershey and Blanchard (1977) the level of the workers maturity determines the task and relationship behavior for the leader. A worker of high maturity has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a worker of low maturity lacks ability and self-confidence. At the other side Barrow (1977) believed maturity is a combination of many elements and the procedure used to weight and combine them was questionable. Yukl (2006) underlined Hershey and Blanchards theory made positive highlights of leaders to be adaptive and flexible in their behavior. Situational leadership theory emphasizes on leaders to be conscious of opportunities to increase the skills and confidence of workers. Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory: The theory according to Kerr and Jermier (1978) makes a distinction between substitutes and neutralizers, which are two different kinds of situational variables. Substitutes include all the characteristics of the worker like task, or organization ensuring the worker will clearly realize their roles, know how to do the work, be highly motivated, and have work satisfaction. Examples of substitutes would be the exceptional ability of a worker, an intrinsically satisfying task, and a cohesive work group within the organization. Usually when workers have prior experience, they already have acquired t he skills and knowledge to accomplish their tasks. If workers are motivated by their work because is according to their interests, the leader may not need to motivate them. Neutralizers are any characteristics of the organization that block a leader from acting in a specific way or that cancel the results of the leaders actions. Example is the lack of interest of workers toward rewards. In many situations there so many neutralizers that it is difficult for a leader to succeed. There are two ways to make the situation more favorable for the leader either remove the neutralizers or make the leadership less important by increasing substitutes. According to Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Ahearne, and Bommer (1995) there is a low level of relationship between the leader and other members motivation of the organization affected by situation variables. Researches concerning substitute leadership theory based on some aspects of the theory, but other aspects have not been supported (Howel Dorfman, 1986; Pitner, 1986; Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, Williams, 1993; Yukl, 2006). Yukl (2006) discussed that the main contribution of substitutes theory is to offer a different perspective on leadership by focus on leadership processes in groups and organizations. Main limitation of contingency theories is the lack of consideration of leadership processes that transform the way followers view themselves and their work. School Effectiveness Research School effectiveness and the related area of school improvement have been topics for an increasing body of academic research since the 1960s. School effectiveness research had its origins in the mid-1960s and early 1970s when a prevalent view in the research community, especially with regard to equality of opportunity, was that schools had little influence on childrens achievement that was independent of background and social context. In the late 1970s in the United States, Edmonds and, in the United Kingdom, Rutter responded by embarking on what was to emerge as the first phase of school effectiveness research. The two studies run independently by Edmonds and Rutter set out to investigate whether schools in their national contexts showed any effects when account was taken of the differences in their student populations. Their findings, arrived at independently, were similar: schools do make a small but highly significant difference to the life chances of their students. School effec tiveness research studies undertaken during the 1980s focused on improving the methodology and replicating the resea